Parodi S, Ognibene M, Haupt R, Pezzolo A. Diagnostics (Basel). 2012 May-Jun;49(3):85-115. doi: 10.3109/10408363.2012.683483. Johnson, M.K. The yeast isc system is the best described. The dual-core processor of the iPhone 4S and not the higher-resolution camera enables it to record at the higher resolution. See how all AP students performed on the most recent exams. Both Complex I and Complex II of oxidative phosphorylation have multiple Fe–S clusters. Low- and high-potential ferredoxins are related by the following redox scheme: In HiPIP, the cluster shuttles between [2Fe3+, 2Fe2+] (Fe4S42+) and [3Fe3+, Fe2+] (Fe4S43+). Significance of clinical and biologic features in Stage 3 neuroblastoma: a report from the International Neuroblastoma Risk Group project. Read on and enlighten yourself with these facts. Therefore, … The atomic configuration of the first row transition series is....: 1s^(2)2s^(2)2p^(6)3s^(2)3p^(6)4s^(2)3d^n The ionic configuration of the M^(2+) cation is (usually)..... [1s^(2)2s^(2)2p^(6)3s^(2)3p^(6)3d^n]^(2+) The 4s electrons are conceived to be removed FIRST upon ionization. Fe–S proteins are vulnerable to attack by biogenic nitric oxide, forming dinitrosyl iron complexes. Among 717 patients with stage 4S pattern, patients age 12 to 18 months had worse EFS than those age younger than 12 months (P < .01). Lines on bars indicate SEs of 5-year EFS point estimates. Some 4Fe–4S clusters bind substrates and are thus classified as enzyme cofactors. [citation needed] A further redox couple, which is still more reducing than the bacterial ferredoxins is implicated in the nitrogenase. Meany HJ, London WB, Ambros PF, Matthay KK, Monclair T, Simon T, Garaventa A, Berthold F, Nakagawara A, Cohn SL, Pearson AD, Park JR. Pediatr Blood Cancer. In almost all Fe–S proteins, the Fe centers are tetrahedral and the terminal ligands are thiolato sulfur centers from cysteinyl residues. Summary: 1.The iPhone 4S sports a dual-core processor while the iPhone 4 has a single-core processor. The prevalence of these proteins on the metabolic pathways of most organisms leads some scientists to theorize that iron–sulfur compounds had a significant role in the origin of life in the iron–sulfur world theory. EFS was significantly better for infants younger than 12 months with 4S pattern than with stage 4 disease (P < .01) but similar for toddlers age 12 to 18 months with stage 4 versus 4S pattern. Recommendations 1978", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Iron–sulfur_protein&oldid=1023073054, Short description is different from Wikidata, All Wikipedia articles written in American English, Articles with unsourced statements from September 2014, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, This page was last edited on 14 May 2021, at 06:07. 2014 Nov;61(11):1932-9. doi: 10.1002/pbc.25134. Resection of primary tumor in stage 4S neuroblastoma: a second study by the Italian Neuroblastoma Group. The first 90-minute section has 60 multiple-choice … Dashed line indicates 365-day cutoff used in International Neuroblastoma Staging System stage 4S definition. Stars. Bethesda, MD 20894, Copyright A special 6 cysteine-coordinated [Fe4S3] cluster was found in oxygen-tolerant membrane-bound [NiFe] hydrogenases.[4][5]. For the insertion of Fe-S clusters into proteins, A-type carrier proteins have been identified. The simplest and most common types of biological Fe–S clusters are [2Fe–2S], [3Fe–4S], and [4Fe–4S] (Figure 1), with the iron atoms ligated by protein-derived cysteine thiols and inorganic sulfide ions in tetrahedral geometry, although histidine and arginine ligation has also been observed. ... [4Fe-4S] cluster-containing class I enzymes are oxidant-sensitive, whereas the class II enzymes are iron-free and therefore oxidant-resistant. Prognostic value of the stage 4S metastatic pattern and tumor biology in patients with metastatic neuroblastoma diagnosed between birth and 18 months of age J Clin Oncol. The camera in the iPhone 4S was a big leap ahead of the shooter in the iPhone 4. They have many other functions including catalysis as illustrated by aconitase, generation of radicals as illustrated by SAM-dependent enzymes, and as sulfur donors in the biosynthesis of lipoic acid and biotin. … The electronic configuration of Cr having atomic number of 24 is 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s 1 3d 5 which is half-filled d-orbital. In eukaryotes, 4Fe–4S clusters have also been described as being part of several DNA repair and replication proteins 15, wherein they are located approximately 20 Å from the DNA backbone. Please enable it to take advantage of the complete set of features! Textbook diagrams familiar from high-school biology class are simplistic renderings of that utterly magical, totally cosmic alchemical process that tethers earthly plant life in reverent, rhythmic attention … CHEBI:48336. The biogenesis of iron sulfur clusters has been studied most extensively in the bacteria E. coli and A. vinelandii and yeast S. cerevisiae. Non-High-Risk Neuroblastoma: Classification and Achievements in Therapy. The first step in getting ready to study for the AP® Biology exam is knowing what the exam will look like. The new International Neuroblastoma Risk Group (INRG) staging system extends age to 18 months for the 4S pattern. Epub 2020 Oct 29. 15.4S: Inflammation Mast Cells. In most Fe–S proteins, the terminal ligands on Fe are thiolate, but exceptions exist.[2]. Age-dependent prognostic effect by Mitosis-Karyorrhexis Index in neuroblastoma: a report from the Children's Oncology Group. 2014 Nov-Dec;17(6):441-9. doi: 10.2350/14-06-1505-OA.1. The IUPAC name of Ribose is (2S,3R,4S,5R)-5- (hydroxymethyl)oxolane-2,3,4-triol. Possible sulfation presence and location (2S, 4S or 6S) is indicated. However, young infants with symptoms secondary to massive hepatomegaly or with unfavorable tumor biology are at high risk of death. When … The enterobacterial Feo system is composed of 3 proteins: FeoB is the indispensable component and is a large membrane protein likely to function as a permease; FeoA is a small Src homology 3 (SH3) domain protein that interacts … 1 Department of Biology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, STU-UNIVPM Joint Algal Research Center, Shantou University, Shantou, 515063, China. Purpose Infants with stage 4S neuroblastoma usually have favorable outcomes with observation or minimal chemotherapy. Unlike the other glycosaminoglycans, ... biology. These species exist in two oxidation states, (FeIII)2 and FeIIIFeII. Carbon monoxide dehydrogenase and the [FeFe]-hydrogenase also feature unusual Fe–S clusters. GK Questions. Tumor biology is more critical than age or metastatic pattern for prognosis of patients age younger than 18 months with metastatic neuroblastoma and should be considered for risk stratification. Fiedler S, Ambros IM, Glogova E, Benesch M, Urban C, Mayer M, Ebetsberger-Dachs G, Bardi E, Jones N, Gamper A, Meister B, Crazzolara R, Amann G, Dieckmann K, Horcher E, Kerbl R, Brunner-Herglotz B, Ziegler A, Ambros PF, Ladenstein R. Cancers (Basel). The website has been rewritten extensively — simplified in some respects (e.g. In radical SAM enzymes, the cluster binds and reduces S-adenosylmethionine to generate a radical, which is involved in many biosyntheses.[3]. Feo is suggested to function as the ferrous iron (Fe2+) transporter. publication categories), deepened in others (e.g. At least three different biosynthetic systems have been identified so far, namely nif, suf, and isc systems, which were first identified in bacteria. It is also known as 2-deoxy-D-erythro-pentose. The suf and isc systems are more general. Iron is essential for pathogen survival, virulence, and colonization. New definition of low-risk neuroblastoma using stage, age, and 1p and MYCN status. 2021 Jan;37(1):37-47. doi: 10.1007/s00383-020-04766-1. E.g., the inactive form of aconitase possesses an [Fe3S4] and is activated by addition of Fe2+ and reductant. EFS by age for (D) all patients (n = 1,675), (E) patients with stage 4 pattern (n = 958), and (F) patients with stage 4S pattern (n = 717). First of all, you know that the formula of the perimeter is 4s (Perimeter of Square = 4 × side). Problem: Calculate Zeff for the 4s electron in a copper atom, Cu and then Calculate Zeff for a 3d electron in a copper atom, Cu. GalNAc(4S) or GalNAc(6S) or GalNAc(4S,6S) GlcUAβ(1→3)GalNAcβ(1→4) Most prevalent GAG Dermatan sulfate: GlcUA or IdoUA or IdoUA(2S) GalNAc or GalNAc(4S) or GalNAc(6S) or GalNAc(4S,6S) 'IdoUAβ1-3'GalNAcβ1-4: Distinguished from chondroitin sulfate by the presence of iduronic acid, although some hexuronic acid monosaccharides may be glucuronic acid. Ribose has a hydrogen atom attached to its molecule at position 2. Conclusion: Our aim was to improve outcomes for patients with symptomatic and/or unfavorable biology 4S neuroblastoma with a uniform treatment approach using a biology- and response-based algorithm. Supplier Information. Careers. Department of Human Biology, Maastricht University Medical Center, NUTRIM School for Nutrition, Toxicology and Metabolism, PO Box 616, 6200MDMaastricht, The Netherlands; j.plat@hb.unimaas.nl; j.plat@maastrichtuniversity.nl Dieter Lutjohann ... (4S), the serum cholestanol:cholesterol ratio at baseline was negatively related to the risk of recurrence of … Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci. The potentials for this redox couple range from −0.3 to −0.7 V. The two families of 4Fe–4S clusters share the Fe4S42+ oxidation state. How to Study for AP® Biology: 9 Tips for 4s and 5s. When these metals form ions, the 4s electrons are always lost first. What is the electron configuration of Cr 3+? This entity has been manually annotated by the ChEBI Team. ChEBI ASCII Name. Chemistry Questions. Synthetic analogues of the naturally occurring Fe–S clusters were first reported by Holm and coworkers. 2021 Feb 2;13(3):572. doi: 10.3390/cancers13030572. Purpose: 2.The iPhone 4S is a world phone while the iPhone 4 is not. EFS by stage for (A) all patients age 0 to 18 months with metastatic disease (n = 1,675), (B) infants age younger than 12 months (n = 1,310), and (C) toddlers age 12 to 18 months (n = 365). Analytic cohort. Would you like email updates of new search results? So, by using this formula find out the length of a side and then apply it in the formula d = s√2 and you will get the length of diagonal of a square. 2019 Jan 11;45(1):8. doi: 10.1186/s13052-018-0599-1. These tests include looking at the chromosomes and other biological markers. This remarkable stability may be attributable to the hydrogen-bonding network provided by the main chain of the protein scaffold. More complex polymetallic systems are common. The difference between the iPhone 5 and the 4S is relatively small. See this image and copyright information in PMC. Iron–sulfur clusters are found in a variety of metalloproteins, such as the ferredoxins, as well as NADH dehydrogenase, hydrogenases, coenzyme Q – cytochrome c reductase, succinate – coenzyme Q reductase and nitrogenase. 12,13 This environment is ideally suited for the most common function of Fe–S … The first step of this process occurs in the cytoplasm of prokaryotic organisms or in the mitochondria of eukaryotic organisms. Their cytoplasm is loaded with granules containing mediators of... Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha (TNF-α). An even function satisfies f(-x) = f(x) for any x in the domain. Our aim was to improve outcomes for patients with symptomatic and/or unfavorable biology 4S … 4.5): (a) rubredoxins, found in bacteria, where the [Fe–S] cluster consists of a single Fe atom liganded to four Cys residues – the iron atom can be in the +2 or +3 valence state; (b) … CDGSH iron sulfur domain is also associated with 2Fe-2S clusters. Find that f(s) satisfies neither the condition for an even function nor the condition for an odd function, so it is neither. Patients and methods: The subset of patients with 4S disease with MYCN-not amplified tumors with impaired or impending organ dysfunction, or with unfavorable histology … Three distinct kinds of Fe–S clusters with these features are most common. Event-free survival (EFS) and overall survival were analyzed by log-rank tests, Cox models, and survival tree regression for 656 infants with stage 4S neuroblastoma younger than 12 months of age and 1,019 patients with stage 4 disease younger than 18 months of age in the INRG database. If f(s) is considered as a Real valued function, then it's not defined for s < 0. contain four basic core structures which have been characterised crystallographically both in model compounds and in iron–sulfur proteins.These are (Fig. The [Fe4S4] electron-transfer proteins ([Fe4S4] ferredoxins) may be further subdivided into low-potential (bacterial-type) and high-potential (HiPIP) ferredoxins. Survival tree regression analysis of patients with neuroblastoma younger than 18 months of age with metastatic disease (n = 1,675; event-free survival [EFS] ± SE). The Fe centers are typically further coordinated by cysteinyl ligands. 2020 May 16;10(5):315. doi: 10.3390/diagnostics10050315. If f(s) is considered as a Complex valued function, then … Histogram of 5-year event-free survival (EFS) by age group for stage 4S pattern versus stage 4 pattern metastases (n = 1,675). FOIA INRG, International Neuroblastoma Risk Group. Their formal oxidation states may vary from [Fe3S4]+ (all-Fe3+ form) to [Fe3S4]2− (all-Fe2+ form). The nif system is responsible for the clusters in the enzyme nitrogenase. Avanzini S, Buffoni I, Gigliotti AR, Parodi S, Paraboschi I, Inserra A, Dall'Igna P, Fagnani AM, Martucciello G, Lima M, Caccioppoli U, Garaventa A, Conte M, Granata C, Sementa AR, Tirtei E, Erminio G, De Bernardi B. Pediatr Surg Int. Neuroblastoma: the impact of biology and cooperation leading to personalized treatments. 8600 Rockville Pike Teshiba R, Kawano S, Wang LL, He L, Naranjo A, London WB, Seeger RC, Gastier-Foster JM, Look AT, Hogarty MD, Cohn SL, Maris JM, Park JR, Shimada H. Pediatr Dev Pathol. In the higher organisms the clusters are therefore transported out of the mitochondrion to be incorporated into the extramitochondrial enzymes. PATIENTS AND … ), 2nd edn, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester. The simplest polymetallic system, the [Fe2S2] cluster, is constituted by two iron ions bridged by two sulfide ions and coordinated by four cysteinyl ligands (in Fe2S2 ferredoxins) or by two cysteines and two histidines (in Rieske proteins). A common motif features a four iron ions and four sulfide ions placed at the vertices of a cubane-type cluster. The single-stranded molecules can fold on themselves forming hairpins and many of the bases become linked by H-bonds. S. J. Lippard, J. M. Berg “Principles of Bioinorganic Chemistry” University Science Books: Mill Valley, CA; 1994. The cluster does not undergo redox, but serves as a Lewis acid catalyst to convert citrate to isocitrate. Analytic cohort. Authors' disclosures of potential conflicts of interest and author contributions are found at the end of this article. So what happens is one of the 4s-electrons goes in, helps fill up the d orbitals. Engaging Science, Technology, and Society (ESTS), the Open Access journal of the Society for Social Studies of Science (4S), has a new website! Unfavorable biologic features were more frequent in infants with stage 4 disease than in infants with 4S tumors and higher overall in those age 12 to 18 months (although not different for stage 4 v 4S pattern). EFS by stage for (A)…, Survival tree regression analysis of patients with neuroblastoma younger than 18 months of…, Histogram of 5-year event-free survival (EFS) by age group for stage 4S pattern…, National Library of Medicine What happens is 4s, and 3d are pretty close in energy to each other. You must remember this: When d-block elements form ions, the 4s electrons are lost first. Note: The problem here is that the Aufbau Principle can only really be used as a way of working out the electronic structures of most atoms. Event-free survival (EFS) comparisons by…, Event-free survival (EFS) comparisons by age and stage. Clipboard, Search History, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. The biosynthesis of the Fe–S clusters has been well studied. Epub 2014 Jul 7. van Noesel MM, Hählen K, Hakvoort-Cammel FG, Egeler RM. Accessibility The adenine residues pair with uracils and guanines with cytosines. and Smith, A.D. (2005) Iron–sulfur proteins in: Encyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry (King, R.B., Ed. Mast cells are found in the tissues. Definition. This is the prime difference between the two monosaccharide molecules. Unable to load your collection due to an error, Unable to load your delegates due to an error. 2019 Jan 8;6(1):5. doi: 10.3390/children6010005. Simon T, Spitz R, Faldum A, Hero B, Berthold F. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. So we're only left with one valence electron or one electron in the fourth energy level for Copper. (1) the Fe/S cluster is assembled on a scaffold protein followed by (2) transfer of the preformed cluster to the recipient proteins. Hyaluronan (HA; hyaluronic acid) is composed of alternating residues of β-D-(1→3) glucuronic acid (GlcA) and β-D-(1→4)-N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) (see Figure 13). The Over-Expression of E2F3 Might Serve as Prognostic Marker for Neuroblastoma Patients with Stage 4S Disease. What Is The Electron Configuration Of Cr 3. Additionally, some Fe–S proteins regulate gene expression. Selenium is a chemical element with atomic number 34 and symbol Se. Iron–sulfur proteins (or iron–sulphur proteins in British spelling) are proteins characterized by the presence of iron–sulfur clusters containing sulfide-linked di-, tri-, and tetrairon centers in variable oxidation states. In a number of iron–sulfur proteins, the [Fe4S4] cluster can be reversibly converted by oxidation and loss of one iron ion to a [Fe3S4] cluster. And for the explanation, you will have to consult your text. Large amounts of TNF-α are quickly released by stimulated mast cells. The oxidized proteins contain two Fe3+ ions, whereas the reduced proteins contain one Fe3+ and one Fe2+ ion. Stage 4s – this special stage defines a tumour diagnosed in a baby … Privacy, Help Stage 4 s neuroblastoma: features, management and outcome of 268 cases from the Italian Neuroblastoma Registry. Tumor biology is more critical than age or metastatic pattern for prognosis of patients age younger than 18 months with metastatic neuroblastoma and should be considered for risk stratification. De Bernardi B, Di Cataldo A, Garaventa A, Massirio P, Viscardi E, Podda MG, Castellano A, D'Angelo P, Tirtei E, Melchionda F, Vetrella S, De Leonardis F, D'Ippolito C, Tondo A, Nonnis A, Erminio G, Gigliotti AR, Mazzocco K, Haupt R. Ital J Pediatr. Our aim was to determine which prognostic features could be used for optimal risk classification among patients younger than 18 months with metastatic disease. Our aim was to improve outcomes for patients with symptomatic and/or unfavorable biology 4S neuroblastoma with a uniform treatment approach using a biology- and response-based algorithm. Biology is one of the most interesting subjects that students prefer studying with enthusiasm. MYCN, 11q, MKI, histology, and 1p were combined in a survival tree for improved risk stratification. Examples include both the 8Fe and the 7Fe clusters in nitrogenase. A cis -1-acetyl-4- (4- { [2- (2,4-dichlorophenyl)-2- (1 H -imidazol-1-ylmethyl)-1,3-dioxolan-4-yl]methoxy}phenyl)piperazine which dioxolane moiety has (2 R ,4 S )-configuration. Iron sulfur (Fe-S) clusters are important biological cofactors present in proteins with crucial biological functions, from photosynthesis to DNA repair, gene expression and bioenergetic processes. Did you ever wonder why the colour of our … … 2016 EASST/4S Meeting in Barcelona, September 3 Presentation on Elements Thinking Panel, co-organized by Maria Puig de la Bellacasa, Natasha Myers, and Dimitris Papadopoulos. So far, three of them were characterized in detail in Escherichia coli , namely IscA, … Fact # 1. CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (, Iron-sulfur cluster biosynthesis protein family, "Iron–sulfur-protein biogenesis in eukaryotes", "Structure and Properties of a Synthetic Analogue of Bacterial Iron-Sulfur Proteins", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, "Developments in the Biomimetic Chemistry of Cubane-Type and Higher Nuclearity Iron–Sulfur Clusters", "Nomenclature of iron-sulfur proteins. Three sulfide ions bridge two iron ions each, while the fourth sulfide bridges three iron ions. [1] Iron–sulfur clusters are best known for their role in the oxidation-reduction reactions of electron transport in mitochondria and chloroplasts. Proteins are also known to contain [Fe3S4] centres, which feature one iron less than the more common [Fe4S4] cores. Biology Questions. But, did you know about some of the amazing facts that were not there in your class book? However, young infants with symptoms secondary to massive hepatomegaly or with unfavorable tumor biology are at high risk of death. Academic Questions. A series of tests may be carried out on the cells from the biopsy to find out more about the biology of the tumour. From the 4s subshell.....a. The IUPAC name of Deoxyribose is 2-deoxy-D-ribose. In aconitase, the Fe–S cluster binds aconitate at the one Fe centre that lacks a thiolate ligand. It is a simple way of doing that, although it fails with some, like chromium or … The sulfide groups are either two- or three-coordinated. Iron–sulfur proteins (Rao and Holm, 2004). Epub 2014 Sep 10. 2004 Dec;26(12):791-6. All the cells... Tryptase. AMP, amplified; LOH, loss of heterozygosity; MKI, mitosis-karyorrhexis index. Children (Basel). Our videos will help you understand concepts, solve your homework, and do great on your exams. These organisms also possess a set of proteins involved in the Fe/S clusters transport and incorporation processes that are not homologous to proteins found in prokaryotic systems. The process occurs in two major steps: Science Questions. Several proteins constitute the biosynthetic machinery via the isc pathway. [9] Treatment of iron salts with a mixture of thiolates and sulfide affords derivatives such as (Et4N)2Fe4S4(SCH2Ph)4].[10][11]. Prevention and treatment information (HHS). The Fe centers are typically further coordinated by cysteinyl ligands. T32 CA128583/CA/NCI NIH HHS/United States, T32 CA128583-01/CA/NCI NIH HHS/United States. The tRNA molecules are single-stranded, have about 73 to 93 nucleotides, a molecular weight of about 25,000 and sedimentation coefficient of about 4S. The difference in the redox couples is attributed to the degree of hydrogen bonding, which strongly modifies the basicity of the cysteinyl thiolate ligands. Know what is Selenium, Chemical Properties of Selenium, Atomic Mass, and more at BYJU'S [6][7][8] Electronic address: lzheng09@stu.edu.cn. Results: Our videos prepare you to succeed in your college classes. Neuroblastoma 4S: a heterogeneous disease with variable risk factors and treatment strategies. Let us help you simplify your studying. Long-Term Outcome and Role of Biology within Risk-Adapted Treatment Strategies: The Austrian Neuroblastoma Trial A-NB94. If you are having trouble with Chemistry, Organic, Physics, Calculus, or Statistics, we got your back! Event-free survival (EFS) comparisons by age and stage. Over here, we’re going to discuss 30 such facts that you probably have not heard of. Knowing about tumour biology provides information that is used in deciding the best treatment for your child. Familiarize yourself with the format of the exam. An odd function satisfies f(-x) = -f(x) for any x in the domain. INRG, International Neuroblastoma…. (2R,4S)-ketoconazole. 1. MYCN, 11q, mitosis-karyorrhexis index (MKI), ploidy, and lactate dehydrogenase were independently statistically significant predictors of EFS and more highly predictive than age or metastatic pattern. Methods: This site needs JavaScript to work properly. Download a PDF version of the 2020 score distributions. Patients with neuroblastoma younger than 12 months of age with a 4S pattern of disease (metastases limited to liver, skin, bone marrow) have better outcomes than infants with stage 4 disease. 4Fe–4S clusters A common motif features a four iron ions and four sulfide ions placed at the vertices of a cubane-type cluster . The exam is 3 hours long and consists of two sections, each of which comprise 50% of your overall score. FREE Expert Solution We’re being asked to calculate the effective nuclear charge (Z eff ) of the 4s electron and 3d electron in a copper (Cu) atom . Proteoglycans are also components of the extracellular matrix, and they interact with a variety … So 3d actually completes, and has 10 because that helps complete the third energy level. Cr3+ has 3 electrons removed from the outermost shell. The potentials for this redox couple range from 0.4 to 0.1 V. In the bacterial ferredoxins, the pair of oxidation states are [Fe3+, 3Fe2+] (Fe4S4+) and [2Fe3+, 2Fe2+] (Fe4S42+). The score distribution tables on this page show the percentages of 1s, 2s, 3s, 4s, and 5s for each AP subject. The [4Fe-4S] cluster was characterized by optical and EPR spectroscopies; it has a reduction potential of −370 mV vs the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) and is stable through redox cycling.

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